Human Feces Spread on Crops Worldwide. But not in Switzerland or Netherlands. Biosolids Means Human Feces in Fertilizer. Was Cyclospora CREATED in a lab?
Why Is Everyone Getting Explosive Diarrhea?
The Answer Isn’t What Most People Think. The Story Begins Decades Before Cyclospora—with The United States, Nazi Germany, Sanitation, And the Long History of Diseases Spread Through Human Waste.
Cyclospora has become one of the most difficult foodborne parasites investigated by public health officials. This episode examines how Cyclospora outbreaks are linked to fresh produce including lettuce, cilantro, basil, raspberries, herbs and packaged salad mixes, and why contaminated food can be so difficult to identify before people become sick. It follows the process of patient interviews, stool testing, epidemiology, product sampling and traceback investigations used to reconstruct outbreaks after contaminated produce has already moved through restaurants, stores, warehouses and international supply chains.
A major focus is Taylor Farms de Mexico and the repeated appearance of its Guanajuato operation in Cyclospora investigations. In 2013 a Cyclospora outbreak was traced to salad mix processed by Taylor Farms de Mexico. In 2026 epidemiology and traceback again pointed to Taylor Farms de Mexico lettuce from central Mexico. The episode examines Guanajuato as a major agricultural region facing water scarcity, groundwater depletion, wastewater treatment challenges and the reuse of treated wastewater. It also asks what oversight actually exists for Mexican lettuce entering the United States and whether produce is routinely tested for Cyclospora before crossing the border.
The investigation finds that every shipment of Mexican lettuce is not tested for Cyclospora. FDA oversight relies largely on importer verification, farm and facility inspections, preventive controls, targeted sampling and outbreak investigations rather than universal laboratory screening. FDA implemented a validated molecular detection method for Cyclospora on produce beginning around 2018 and expanded laboratory capability by training Mexican government laboratories in 2023. The episode examines why a laboratory test can exist while contaminated produce can still move through the food supply undetected.
The program also traces the scientific history of Cyclospora beginning with Richard W. Ashford’s 1979 report from Papua New Guinea and follows the parasite through years of uncertainty before it became recognized as Cyclospora cayetanensis. It explores the work of Richard W. Ashford, Graham D. F. Reid, David C. Warhurst, Robert Gilman, Ynes Ortega, Charles Sterling and other researchers, together with the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, the Institute of Primate Research in Kenya, the World Health Organization and international tropical disease research programs.
Beyond modern outbreaks, the episode traces the historical roots of sanitation and public health from nineteenth-century Europe and Bavaria through the rise of bacteriology, sewage engineering and wastewater management in the United States. It examines how human waste, sewage sludge and today’s biosolids became incorporated into modern agriculture, how wastewater reuse developed in both the United States and Mexico, and how those practices intersect with food safety, irrigation and infectious disease prevention.
The program also explores the history of biological warfare research involving diarrheal diseases during World War II and the Cold War, including Nazi Germany, the United States and later military biodefense programs. It distinguishes documented historical research into enteric diseases from the established biology of Cyclospora itself while examining how governments and scientists have long viewed foodborne illness, sanitation and gastrointestinal disease as matters of both public health and national security.
Cyclospora remains unusually difficult to study. There is still no routine laboratory culture system, no widely accepted animal model reproducing the complete human infection and no well-established human challenge model. Researchers continue to rely on naturally infected patients, molecular testing, stool examinations, epidemiological investigations and outbreak traceback. Contamination may be scattered unevenly through a field, shipment or salad mix, meaning a negative sample does not prove that the remaining produce is free of the parasite. These limitations help explain why investigators often begin with sick people and work backward toward the food, water, farm and processing facility.
The episode ultimately places Cyclospora within the larger history of human feces, sanitation, sewage sludge, biosolids, wastewater reuse, agriculture, tropical medicine, epidemiology and foodborne disease. It examines how modern food production, international trade, environmental infrastructure and public health intersect to allow a microscopic parasite to travel from a contaminated field or water source to consumers hundreds or even thousands of miles away.
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September 16, 1975
Papua New Guinea gains independence from Australia.
April 29, 1976
Papua New Guinea becomes a member of the World Health Organization (WHO).
August 1976
The WHO Representative Office opens in Port Moresby, only months after independence. The first WHO Country Liaison Officer, appointed in 1974, becomes the first WHO Representative.
1977
The first known human cases of what would later be identified as Cyclospora occur in Papua New Guinea.
Patients with prolonged diarrhea are examined, but the organism is unknown.
1978
Additional cases are identified.
Researchers continue observing the unusual organism in stool samples.
1979
Dr. R. W. Ashford publishes the landmark paper:
“Occurrence of an undescribed coccidian in man in Papua New Guinea.”
Ashford describes three patients and concludes the organism is an undescribed coccidian parasite, although he cannot yet identify it precisely. This becomes the first published description of what would later be known as Cyclospora cayetanensis.
1980s
Similar organisms begin appearing in patients around the world.
Different laboratories describe them as:
- cyanobacterium-like bodies (CLBs)
- blue-green algae
- coccidian-like bodies
- large Cryptosporidium
Because the organism is poorly understood, no one realizes these reports are describing the same parasite.
1993
David C. Warhurst and G. D. F. Reid, working with R. W. Ashford, publish work arguing that the mysterious “cyanobacterium-like bodies” reported worldwide are actually the same organism Ashford first described in Papua New Guinea in 1979.
Their work helps connect years of scattered reports into a single scientific story.
1993
Ynes Ortega, Charles R. Sterling, Robert H. Gilman, and colleagues formally identify and name the parasite:
Cyclospora cayetanensis.
Approximately sixteen years after the first recognized human cases in Papua New Guinea, the organism finally receives its official scientific name.
Key Historical ObservationThe WHO Representative Office was already operating in Port Moresby before Cyclospora was first recognized in humans. The office opened in August 1976, the first known cases appeared in 1977, additional cases followed in 1978, and Ashford published the first scientific description in 1979.
The principal researchers associated with the early discovery were:
- Dr. R. W. Ashford – First to recognize and publish the new parasite (1979).
- Dr. David C. Warhurst – Helped establish that the mysterious organisms being reported internationally were the same parasite first described by Ashford.
- Dr. G. D. F. Reid – Collaborated with Ashford and Warhurst in linking the worldwide reports.
- Dr. Ynes Ortega, Dr. Charles R. Sterling, and Dr. Robert H. Gilman – Members of the research group that formally identified and named Cyclospora cayetanensis in 1993.
This sequence shows that the discovery of Cyclospora was not a single event but a process that unfolded over roughly 16 years, beginning in Papua New Guinea and ending with international recognition of a new human parasite.
One of the most important lessons from military medicine is that severe diarrheal disease has historically disabled more soldiers than many weapons. Long before antibiotics, armies feared outbreaks of dysentery, cholera, typhoid, and other gastrointestinal diseases because they could incapacitate entire units.
That historical reality explains why military organizations became interested in enteric diseases—not because “explosive diarrhea” itself was viewed as a unique weapon, but because pathogens causing severe gastrointestinal illness could remove soldiers from combat.
The Military ProblemMilitary planners have long recognized that diarrheal diseases can:
- Incapacitate large numbers of troops
- Require significant medical resources
- Reduce combat readiness
- Spread rapidly in crowded military environments
Modern U.S. military medical literature continues to describe diarrheal disease as one of the most common causes of lost operational effectiveness during deployments.
Nazi GermanyNazi Germany conducted biological warfare research during World War II.
Research included:
• insect vectors
• infectious diseases
• military applications of biological agents
Documents released decades later show that the SS established an Entomological Institute at Dachau in 1942 under Heinrich Himmler. Historians examining surviving research protocols concluded the institute had an offensive biological warfare component.
The German program was much smaller than Japan’s infamous Unit 731, but it demonstrates that Nazi leadership investigated biological warfare.
Did Nazi Germany Develop a Weapon Specifically for Explosive Diarrhea?There is no documented evidence that Nazi Germany produced a dedicated biological weapon whose sole purpose was to cause explosive diarrhea.
However, they did study organisms capable of causing severe gastrointestinal disease as part of broader biological warfare research.
Military interest centered on whether disease could disable enemy forces.
That is different from evidence showing an operational “explosive diarrhea weapon.”
The United StatesThe United States launched its offensive biological warfare program during World War II.
Major centers included:
• Camp Detrick (later Fort Detrick)
• Dugway Proving Ground
• Pine Bluff Arsenal
The program expanded greatly after the war.
Government histories show U.S. researchers investigated numerous human, animal, and plant pathogens as potential biological warfare agents before President Richard Nixon ended the offensive program in 1969 and ordered destruction of offensive stockpiles.
Did the United States Study Diarrheal Diseases?Yes.
But it is important to distinguish two different kinds of research.
1. Offensive biological warfareResearchers evaluated many disease agents for military usefulness.
Some gastrointestinal pathogens were examined because they could disable troops.
2. Defensive medicineThe much larger body of work focused on protecting U.S. troops from naturally occurring diarrheal disease.
This includes decades of research on:
- Shigella
- Salmonella
- enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC)
- cholera
- norovirus
- Campylobacter
The goal was preventing outbreaks among deployed military personnel.
Why Diarrhea Matters MilitarilyA soldier suffering:
- severe abdominal cramps
- dehydration
- vomiting
- repeated explosive diarrhea
is often unable to fight.
Historically this has been considered an effective way for disease—not necessarily a weapon—to reduce combat capability.
Military medicine has repeatedly documented that diarrheal illness can sideline large numbers of personnel during deployments.
CyclosporaCyclospora is very different.
The parasite was first scientifically described in Papua New Guinea in 1979 by Dr. R. W. Ashford after cases observed beginning in the late 1970s.
Unlike many bacterial diarrheal diseases:
- it requires days to weeks outside the human body before becoming infectious
- it is not spread directly person-to-person under ordinary conditions
- humans are the only confirmed major reservoir
These characteristics make Cyclospora an unlikely biological warfare agent compared with organisms that spread rapidly between people.
Why Cyclospora Is DifficultCyclospora presents a public health challenge because:
- infections often begin in fields before harvest
- contamination levels on produce can be extremely low
- detecting the parasite on food is technically difficult
- traceback investigations usually rely on epidemiology and supply-chain evidence rather than finding the organism on a food sample
These characteristics complicate outbreak investigations but do not indicate intentional contamination.
What Is Supported by the Historical Record?Supported by documentary evidence:
✔ Nazi Germany conducted biological warfare research.
✔ The United States conducted an extensive offensive biological warfare program from World War II until 1969.
✔ Both countries studied infectious diseases with military relevance.
✔ Gastrointestinal diseases have long been recognized as capable of incapacitating armies.
✔ Modern military medicine continues extensive research on diarrheal diseases because they remain a major operational problem.
Development of modern virology laboratories and high-containment (BSL) facilities.
- BSL-1 – Basic laboratories for low-risk organisms.
- BSL-2 – Clinical and diagnostic laboratories handling moderate-risk pathogens.
- BSL-3 – Designed for airborne pathogens such as tuberculosis and SARS-related viruses.
- BSL-4 – Maximum containment for the highest-risk pathogens, such as Ebola and Marburg viruses.
One thing stands out in the timeline: before the 1940s there were very few dedicated virology laboratories. The major expansion occurred after World War II, accelerated during the Cold War, expanded again after HIV, and grew rapidly after the 2003 SARS outbreak and again following COVID-19. That progression helps explain why most discussions about laboratory biosafety and possible laboratory-associated outbreaks are concentrated in the last 50 years.
Countries with BSL-4 laboratories today- Argentina
- Australia
- Belarus
- Brazil
- Canada
- China
- Czech Republic
- Côte d’Ivoire
- France
- Gabon
- Germany
- Hungary
- India
- Italy
- Japan
- Kazakhstan
- Netherlands
- Philippines
- Russia
- Saudi Arabia
- Singapore
- South Africa
- South Korea
- Spain
- Sweden
- Switzerland
- Taiwan
- United Kingdom
- United States
…plus several others with one facility or facilities under construction, for a total of 34 countries.
1946–1967
- Birth of modern high-containment laboratory research.
- Almost entirely United States.
1967–1985
- Only a few BSL-4 laboratories existed.
- Primarily:
- United States
- Soviet Union
1985–2000
- Slow expansion to:
- Canada
- Australia
- France
- Germany
2001–2003
- Two major events changed the trajectory:
- 9/11 and the anthrax attacks
- SARS
These events led to a sharp increase in investment in high-containment laboratories.
2015–Present
- China joins the small group operating BSL-4 laboratories.
- After COVID-19, additional countries began building or expanding BSL-4 facilities.
For roughly the first 35 years of the BSL-4 era (1967–2001), only a small number of countries operated these maximum-containment laboratories. The largest worldwide expansion occurred after the 2001 anthrax attacks, after SARS in 2003, and again following COVID-19.
The following countries are documented to have used treated sewage sludge (biosolids) on agricultural land or for land reclamation.
Europe- Austria
- Belgium
- Czech Republic
- Denmark
- Finland
- France
- Germany (now moving toward phosphorus recovery and reducing farmland use)
- Hungary
- Ireland
- Italy
- Luxembourg
- Norway
- Poland
- Portugal
- Spain
- Sweden
- Switzerland (historically used it, banned agricultural use in 2006)
- Netherlands (historically used it, now essentially does not apply it to farmland, relying mainly on incineration)
- United Kingdom (England, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland)
- Canada
- Mexico
- Brazil
- Chile
- Argentina
- Australia
- New Zealand
- China
- Japan
- South Korea
- Turkey
- South Africa
- Egypt
- Switzerland – banned agricultural application in 2006.
- Netherlands – no longer routinely spreads sewage sludge on farmland; most is incinerated or otherwise processed.
- Germany – has not banned it outright but is moving away from farmland application through regulations emphasizing phosphorus recovery.
So, besides the United States, at least 30–35 countries have used biosolids in some form. The practice is especially widespread in Europe, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Asia, although several countries have recently tightened restrictions or shifted away from agricultural land application because of concerns about contaminants such as PFAS and other persistent chemicals.
Late 1800s–early 1900s
American and European cities rapidly built sewer systems and wastewater treatment plants. As treatment improved, they generated increasing amounts of sewage sludge.
American cities introduced technologies such as:
- Trickling filters
- Primary sedimentation
- Activated-sludge treatment (developed in Britain in 1914 but widely adopted in the U.S.)
- Chlorination
- Anaerobic digestion
These processes greatly increased the volume of treated sludge that cities had to manage.
1900s–1960s
Cities experimented with several disposal methods:
- Dumping into rivers or the ocean
- Landfilling
- Incineration
- Drying
- Agricultural use
At this stage it was generally called sewage sludge, not biosolids.
1970s
Environmental laws changed the conversation.
The U.S. banned most ocean dumping of sewage sludge and placed greater restrictions on disposal. Utilities increasingly looked to agriculture as a long-term management strategy.
1980s
The wastewater industry began promoting treated sludge as a reusable product rather than simply a waste.
The term “biosolids” was developed during this period.
In 1991, the Water Environment Federation sponsored a branding effort that selected the word biosolids to distinguish treated sewage sludge meeting certain treatment standards from untreated sewage sludge.
1993
The EPA issued the federal 40 CFR Part 503 Rule, establishing national standards for land application, pathogen reduction, and metal limits.
From that point forward, “biosolids” became the standard regulatory and industry term in the United States.
So your statement is essentially correct, but I’d tighten it slightly:
American cities introduced trickling filters, sedimentation, activated-sludge treatment, chlorination, and anaerobic digestion. As wastewater treatment expanded during the early 20th century, increasing amounts of sewage sludge were produced. Cities experimented with dumping, burial, incineration, digestion, drying, and agricultural use. This evolving system became the foundation for what the United States would later rename biosolids in the early 1990s.
One important distinction is that the material existed long before the name did. The treatment processes and land application practices developed over decades, while “biosolids” is essentially a 1990s regulatory and public-relations term for treated sewage sludge that meets specified standards.
Here’s each one:
- Are they dangerous? Yes, especially for workers handling concentrated chemicals.
- Can they cause side effects? Yes, primarily involving the eyes, skin, and lungs from direct exposure.
- Do consumers typically receive those exposures? Under normal commercial use, these sanitizers are diluted, monitored, and intended to leave only very small residues on produce. Food safety agencies consider those residual exposures acceptable when the products are used according to regulations.
GRAS means “Generally Recognized As Safe.” It is an FDA regulatory designation for a substance used under its intended conditions—not a sanitizer itself.
Besides chlorine and peracetic acid, produce processors may also use:
- Hydrogen peroxide (GRAS for certain food-processing uses)
- Ozone
- Chlorine dioxide
- Organic acids such as citric acid, lactic acid, and acetic acid (vinegar), which are GRAS substances and may be used in produce washing.
Some commercial produce-wash formulations are made entirely from GRAS ingredients. For example, USDA researchers developed one antimicrobial wash whose ingredients are all classified as GRAS by the FDA.
One important point for your Cyclospora research:
Even when a sanitizer or wash uses only GRAS ingredients, that does not mean it can reliably eliminate Cyclospora from contaminated lettuce or other produce. FDA guidance emphasizes that these antimicrobial washes are mainly intended to keep the wash water from spreading contamination and may reduce surface microbes, but preventing contamination before harvest is the primary control strategy.
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