Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Gasoline

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of GasolineEpisode #17Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Adithya Shrikanth and I am your host for episode 1 called Today I/we will be discussing the chemistry of Gasoline.Segment 1: Introduction to GasolineGasoline how it works are what are the differences between regular and premium and the difference between the gasoline in car and jetsSegment 2: The Chemistry Behind GasolineThe chemical composition of gasoline is C8H18 and it appears as a yellowish liquid. The problem is that gasoline is a liquid and for an engine of any vehicle to work it needs fuel. The wondrous thing about gasoline is that is vaporizes at low temperatures so the engine does not have to heat up much for the gasoline to turn into fuel. Gasoline is a petroleum-based compound so when the engine is running, the gasoline reacts with the air and a combustion reaction occurs turing the gasoline into a gas. To understand gasoline further we must know how the gasoline reacts with the engine. Despite the type of engines used, all of them use pistons. When the gasoline combusts, the explosion pushes the piston down which transfers energy to the crankshaft and so one eventually leading to a running car. How we know how gasoline works but what about the differences between gasoline. At the gas station we see two options, premium and regular and normally we use regular gasoline due to its price but why do these options exist. Well the main difference between regular and premium is the ocatnce level. Premium gasoline has a higher octane level. The level of octane in gasoline indicated the likelihood of improper engine combustion which is known as engine knock. The higher octane concentration in premium gasoline causes a lower likelihood of engine knock happening, this is why high premium gasoline is used in high-performance cars. Jets and cars both use fuel but what is the difference between them. Both aviation fuel and regular fuel use hydrocarbons but the difference is the type of hydrocarbons each fule uses. The hydocarbns that make up normal gasoline contain 7 to 11 carbon atoms attached to hydrogen atoms, the ones that make up Avatioan fuel contain 12-15 carbon atoms so jet fuel is made up of mostly kerosene. In theory jet fuel can be used in cars but car fuel cannot make a jet run because the conditions that a jet goes through are very different as compared to a car. At the hights that a jet travels, the temprature becomes -40 Celcius so normal gasoline would freeze at those temperatures so the combustion reactions would stop. Since jet fuel is mostly kerosene it has a low freezing point so that is why jet fuel and gasoline are different. Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsWe all drive cars and have been in cars as long as we can remember. One of the converstones of driving a car is gasoline. We pull up to the gas station and see options for gasoline and we wonder what they all mean. We also wonder how a liquid can help a car or plane run.Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. Sources:https://www.chemistryislife.com/the-chemistry-of-gasoline-engineshttps://www.chicagotoyota.com/premium-vs-regular-gasoline.htmhttps://interestingengineering.com/transportation/whats-the-difference-between-jet-fuel-and-gasolineMusic CreditsWarm Nights by @LakeyInspired Subscribe to our PodcastApple PodcastsSpotifyGoogle Podcasts Stitcher Connect with us on Social Media@theHVSPN

Chemistry of Cupcakes

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsCupcake ChemistryEpisode #18 Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Amelie Bass and I am your host for episode #18 called Cupcake Chemistry. Today I will be discussing how the ingredients of a cupcake form the magical dessert we all know and love.Segment 1: Introduction to CupcakesCupcakes: the delicious dessert baked for a celebration or eaten as a late-night snack. But like what goes into the cupcake to give it a moist and fluffy cake? I love baking a variety of treats but cupcakes are always a classic. Ok, let’s start with the key ingredients of any good cupcake:FlourButterSugarEggsVanillaLeaveners, like baking powder and baking sodaDairy, like sour cream and milkAnd of course a good frosting and decorationsIn this episode we will be discussing the chemistry behind 2 of these ingredients, starting with….Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Baking PowderLeaveners (like the thing that gives the cupcake a light fluffy texture) are probably the most important ingredient in a cupcake. It is used to help the cupcake rise, giving it a light and fluffy texture.So what is a leavener, like what is the ingredient that is doing the rising. Baking soda and baking powder are what recipes will commonly call for. Now some will call for both of these leaveners. But wait, why is that, why do I need 2? Hold onto that idea later and we will come back to it later. Let's first analyze what these two substances even are.Baking sodaSodium bicarbonate is a base, used to neutralize any acidic components (chocolate or citrus) in the batterWhen the cupcakes are baked, the baking soda or NaHCO3 in the batter turns into sodium carbonate, water, and carbon dioxideThe carbon dioxide which is released in bubbles, causing the batter to rise.Baking powderA dry mixture that contains baking soda, acid salts, and cornstarchThe baking soda reacts with the acid salts in the powder only when the mixture is moistenedThe cornstarch is a drying agent used to prevent the acid and baking soda reaction from occurring.So now that we better understand the substances we are talking about, why would a recipe call for both baking soda and baking powder? In the reaction with baking soda (a base with a pH of 8.5) one of the products is sodium carbonate (an even stronger base with a pH of 11.5) This will cause the entire mixture to be too basic resulting in a bad cupcake.That cupcake is not gonna sit well with whoever eats it.So we use a larger amount of baking powder to do the heavy lifting, acting as the rising agent to give us our lovely fluffy cupcake, and then use a smaller amount of baking soda to neutralize any other acids in the batter. This is a good cupcake. Segment 3: The Chemistry Behind FlourSo, when you think of baking the first ingredient almost anyone will think of is flour. All-purpose flour for all my baking purposes, but is that the best type of flour? Wait, hold on. Did I just say “type of flour”, as in there are other types of flour? YES! Now don’t stress all-purpose flour is still good for almost anything you are trying to make, however, to achieve optimal results, there are other options for the type of flour you use. But what’s the difference? Isn’t all flour the same?The differences between types of flour like: cake flour, all-purpose flour, bread flour ect… is the level of protein in the flour. Protein? Flour has protein? Yes it does, and it gives the cupcake (or whatever your baking) its texture. Flour is made from wheat which contains 2 types of protein: glutenin and gliadin. When water is added these 2 protein link together and form gluten. Gliadin gives it the abilitity to stretch and glutenin gives it the ability to snap back. The strength of gluten is what makes flour the structural component of cupcakes. Gluten is a string of amino acids, 35% of which being Glutamines. Glutamine forms numerous inter-chain hydrogen bonds with other amino acids. Individual, these bonds are weak, but in combination they are very strong, contributing to the high cohesiveness of gluten. Also, the numerous hydrophobic (meaning the repulsion of water) interactions result in strong cohesion in the batter.Flours with a higher protein content, means its has more “gluten-forming potential”, therefore the flour is “stronger”. Soo, how does this relate to cupcakes? Cupcakes don’t stretch and snap. True. So the flour used to make cupcakes, Cake Flour: has a protein percentage of 10%. This is considered low-protein, giving the cupcake it’s soft texture.The commonly used, all-purpose flour: has a protein percentage of 11.7% which sits in a comfortable middle level. This is usable and won't result in a drastic change in texture, but the cake flour is better. Segment 4: Personal ConnectionsSo there we have it, the chemistry of a cupcake. I love cupcakes.I think my favorite flavor to make would be chocolate of strawberry. My favorite part of making cupcakes is piping decorations on top. Whether it’s a simple flower or more detailed decorations, I always have fun. The main reason I chose to do this topic was to have an excuse to bake cupcakes and I look forward to how they turn out.Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. Sources:https://www.jhunewsletter.com/article/2008/09/science-turned-sweet-with-cupcake-chemistry-91835https://www.seattletimes.com/life/food-drink/the-flour-used-in-baking-recipes-determines-the-texture-of-the-final-product/#:~:text=Cake%20flour%20is%20low%2Dprotein,a%20higher%2Dgluten%20end%20result.https://www.kingarthurbaking.com/blog/2023/09/25/protein-percentage#:~:text=What%20is%20the%20protein%20in,the%20building%20blocks%20of%20gluten.https://www.agc-chemicals.com/jp/en/products/detail/index.html?pCode=JP-EN-C010#:~:text=Sodium%20bicarbonate%20is%20a%20white,substances%20with%20the%20lowest%20alkalinity.https://scrippslabs.com/ph-of-common-reagents-at-room-temperature/https://foodsciencetoolbox.com/gluten-chemistry-and-functionality/ Music CreditsWarm Nights by @LakeyInspired Subscribe to our PodcastApple PodcastsSpotifyGoogle Podcasts Stitcher Connect with us on Social Media@theHVSPN

Chemistry of Steroids

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is dongxuan and I am your host for episode #16 called . chemistry in steroids Today I/we will be discussing the structure and some basic information about the steriodsThe first therapeutic use of steroids occurred in the 18th century when English physician William Withering used digitalis, a compound extracted from the leaves of the common foxglove, to treat edema.steroid: any of a class of natural or synthetic organic compounds characterized by a molecular structure of 17 carbon atoms arranged in four rings.Today I’m gonna talk about 6 types of steroids. I’m gonna talking about their structure and their functions. Cortisol plays an important role in the stress response. Maintaining an adequate balance of cortisol is essential for health.In many species, including amphibians, reptiles, rodents and birds, corticosterone is a main glucocorticoid involved in regulation of energy, immune reactions, and stress responses.Aldosterone A steroid hormone made by the adrenal cortex (the outer layer of the adrenal gland). It helps control the balance of water and salts in the kidney by keeping sodium in and releasing potassium from the body.Progesterone is an endogenous steroid hormone that is commonly produced by the adrenal cortex as well as the gonads, which consist of the ovaries and the testes. Progesterone is also secreted by the ovarian corpus luteum during the first ten weeks of pregnancy, followed by the placenta in the later phase of pregnancy.Oestradiol is a steroid hormone with a molecular weight of 272. It is secreted mainly by the ovary, but small amounts are produced by the adrenals and testis, so that in males and in post menopausal females' Oestradiol is always present at low concentrations.Testosterone is the primary male hormone responsible for regulating sex differentiation, producing male sex characteristics, spermatogenesis, and fertility. Personal connection:Several weeks ago, I’m just doing a regular blood test, and the doctor said my platelets are low, and it’s getting lower. I have to go to the doctor. After the examination, the doctor told me that my immune system recognizes that my platelets are harmful and is destroying my platelets. So the doctor gave me decadron, that’s corticosterone. that’s a medicine that will suppress the immune system so it won’t destroy more platelets. SInce the decadron has many side effects. It cause me headaches, muscle pain, and stomach pain. So I decided to do some research about steroids. Because it really cause a lot of trouble to me. That’s the main reason that I choose this topic. That’s my connection with the steroids. Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. Sourceshttps://www.britannica.com/science/steroidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steroid

Chemistry of Catalytic Converters

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of Catalytic ConvertersEpisode #15 Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Matthew Nguyen and I am your host for episode 15 called Fumes to Fresh Air. Today I will be discussing the chemistry of catalytic converters. Segment 1: Introduction to Catalytic ConvertersGeneral Information on Catalytic ConvertersUsed to reduce emissions from car enginesUsed in exhaust systems to remove harmless byproducts from internal combustion enginesRemoves nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons and turns them into carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen gasConverts 98% of the harmful emissions to less harmful gassesMost stolen parts of the car because it has valuable materials like platinum, rhodium, and palladium which can sell for a lot of moneyNo more than 4-9 grams of these precious metals are used in a single converterLocated between the muffler and the engineComposed of metal housing with a ceramic honeycomb-like interior with insulating layersTo begin, I’ll first dive into what specifically a catalytic converter is and what its function is for those who don’t knowA catalytic converter filters out harmful emissions released by a vehicle.It is a metal square box containing a ceramic honeycomb interior, located on the underside of the car between the engine and muffler with insulating layers composed of precious metals like platinum, rhodium, and palladium. Because these metals are extremely valuable, they make the converter one of the most frequently stolen items in a car. Put a pin in that idea, we’ll come back to it later.Due to the elements of palladium, platinum, and rhodium, a single converter can filter 98% of harmful emissions like nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons into harmless gasses of carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Catalytic ConvertersThe Chemistry part of Catalytic ConvertersOne reduction and two oxidation reactions occur inside a catalytic converterNitrogen oxide reduces into elemental nitrogen and oxygenCarbon monoxide oxidized into carbon dioxideHydrocarbons are oxidized into carbon dioxide and waterTwo systems running in catalytic converters “rich” and “lean” It runs lean resulting in the favoring of oxidation of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons It runs rich resulting in the favoring of the reduction of nitrogen oxide into elemental nitrogen and oxygenIf NO is not converted into less harmful emissions, it can create smog or acid rain Catalysts like platinum, rhodium, and palladium are used to lower the activation energy to drive the reaction forwardLet's pause here and talk about some of the chemistry at work. Surprisingly, catalytic converters have many chemical processes.When a car combusts in the presence of oxygen and gasoline, it releases nitrogen gas (N2) as a harmless byproduct; however, when it bonds with oxygen, it creates nitrogen oxides which are extremely harmful to the environment. If these nitrogen oxides are not filtered out, it can create smog or even acid rain.That's when catalytic converters come into play which contain no more than 4-9 grams of valuable metals like platinum, rhodium, and palladium. What makes these metals different from others is that they are good at resisting oxidation, corrosion, and acid allowing them to withstand all of the chemicals released by an internal combustion engine. Furthermore, these metals function as catalysts within a catalytic converter. These catalysts reduce the activation energy needed for a reaction to occur, allowing it to proceed at a faster rate. Furthermore, the honeycomb structure within a converter allows for a large amount of surface area so that multiple reactions occur rapidly and efficiently. Inside a catalytic converter, a redox reaction occurs simultaneously: called oxidation and reduction reactions. In an oxidation reaction, electrons are lost whereas in a reduction reaction, electrons are gained. Each metal is responsible for either oxidizing or reducing carbon or nitrogen. For example, the first stage of the reaction involves platinum and rhodium which both take part in reduction reactions that reduce nitrogen oxides in the exhaust. They can do this by removing nitrogen atoms from nitrogen oxide or nitrogen dioxide molecules, freeing up oxygen atoms. Once the catalysts have finished the reaction, the nitrogen atoms react with each other creating nitrogen gas which is harmless to the environment. The byproducts are nitrogen and oxygen gas.Similarly, the second stage of the reaction involves platinum and palladium which oxidize carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, turning them both into carbon dioxide and water. Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsLet's return to the idea of how catalytic converters get stolen pretty often.Well… a couple of years ago, after coming home from a family trip, I remember my dad turning on our car after dropping it off in a secluded lot for several weeks. The car soon became extremely loud after ignition and it turns out that the catalytic converter on our car was stolen. The reason for this was merely because of the precious metals within the converter that made it a prime target for thieves.The purpose of these metals has remained a curious phenomenon with me, but taking AP Chem has allowed me to understand the chemistry and function of the metals. This has prompted me to want to create a podcast episode about how harmful emissions are reduced and the chemistry behind catalytic converters. Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-run podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. Sources:https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Kinetics/07%3A_Case_Studies-_Kinetics/7.01%3A_Catalytic_Convertershttps://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/stem-explained/catalytic-convertershttps://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/catalytic-converterhttps://www.bnl.gov/newsroom/news.php?a=110282#:~:text=%22In%20a%20catalytic%20converter%2C%20ceria,nitrogen%20gas%2C%22%20Rodriguez%20said.Music CreditsWarm Nights by @LakeyInspired Subscribe to our PodcastApple PodcastsSpotifyGoogle Podcasts Stitcher Connect with us on Social Media@theHVSPN

Chemistry of Agent Orange

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe History & Chemistry of Agent OrangeEpisode #14 Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Zoey and I am your host for episode #14 called The History & Chemistry of Agent Orange. Today I will be discussing The notorious herbicides used during the Vietnam War, its composition, and its impact.Segment 1: Introduction to Agent OrangeWe’ll first start by introducing the herbicide, agent orange and its history and use during the Vietnam War.Agent Orange was a mix of two herbicides which was sprayed in high concentrations during the Vietnam War by the U.S. Military. The name came from the orange stripe that was found on the containers of this chemical.Agent Orange, and other herbicides known as the “rainbow herbicides,” were part of a large operation, operation Ranch Hand, which aimed to defoliate lots of land through spraying chemical herbicides from aircrafts. Agent Orange was the most used herbicide during the Vietnam War.The chemical was sprayed in up to 20 times higher concentration than suggested for killing plants normally by manufacturers. This caused severe damage to millions of acres of forest, affected three million Vietnamese people with disease and defects, including children who were not alive during the war, and remained in soil for decades and disturbing the food sources.Agent Orange was the most commonly used chemical during the war to defoliate the forests and farmland of Vietnam and its neighboring countries Laos and Cambodia. This was for many reasons. One, this took away cover from the Viet Cong, who were guerilla fighters dependent on the cover provided by Vietnam’s thick forests. The destruction of farmland also caused many of the viet cong to be unable to sustain themselves rurally, which starved them or forced them to move closer to sustain themselves. This would take away rural nourishment support for the Viet Cong during the war, which were their main food sources.Agent Orange was eventually banned in 1971 by the United States, and remaining stocks were destroyed on a remote island.Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Agent OrangeNow we’re going to talk about the chemistry behind Agent Orange, and how it impacted the environment and people involved in the Vietnam War. We will first talk about the composition of Agent Orange, then why this chemical mixture caused so much damage to the environment and people.Agent Orange is a 1:1 mixture of two herbicides which are (2,4-dichlorophenoxy)acetic acid, or 2,4-D and 2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid, or 2,4,5-T. The herbicides were originally developed in the 1940s, but only used domestically until after WWII, and came to prominence as chemical warfare weapons in the Vietnam War.2,4-D, in its pure acid form, is not soluble in water due to its strong solute-solute polar bonds, which cannot be broken by water to form weaker solute-solvent bonds. Therefore, other forms of the acid, such as in salts or esters, are used instead for water solubility. This can be seen in common forms of the herbicide by itself in use today.However, 2,4,5-T is almost completely not soluble in water, also due to its strong polar bonds, so Agent Orange was often dissolved in diesel fuel or other organic solvents, which can create stronger solute-solvent bonds with 2,4,5-T than water.Agent Orange, and its component 2,4,5-T was phased out after the 1970s due to toxicity concerns, however 2,4-D is still used to this day2,4,5-T and 2,4-D belonged to a class of selective herbicides known as synthetic auxins, which changed growth hormones in broadleaf plants and effectively killed them in high concentrations.2,4,5-T was phased out because the production of 2,4,5-T would lead to a contaminant byproduct, known as Tetrachloro Dioxin, TCDD, or simply dioxin for the general public.As you can see in the show notes figure 1, the process of synthesizing 2,4,5-T by heating 2,4,5-Trichlorophenol, which is an organochlorine with the chemical formula C₆H₃Cl₃O, with a base NaOH in CH3OH or water under high pressure will produce 2,4,5-T at 140 degrees celsius. However, a slightly higher temperature of 160 degrees C will cause the production of TCDD. Figure 1This is because of the activation energy to start these reactions. The activation energy to start the synthesis of 2,4,5-T is lower than the activation energy to start the synthesis of TCDD, so with extremely controlled temperatures it is possible to synthesize 2,4,5-T without synthesizing dioxin by not giving it enough activation energy.However, since the difference in temperature is so small and hard to fully control, TCDD was often produced as a side product when synthesizing 2,4,5-T.Although TCDD was produced in trace amounts, it still caused lots of damage. It’s attributed to as the cause for many forms of cancer encountered in Vietnam veterans, such as Hodgkin’s lymphoma. It’s also believed to be the cause of many birth defects found in children of Vietnam after the warAs previously mentioned, since Agent Orange was sprayed on farmland and lasted for a long time, the contamination of TCDD in food grown from them may be a reason why many people were affected by the toxin.Agent Orange also had a large impact on the environment, as many countries have condemned its use as a form of “ecocide” because of the damage done to the environment. The US and Vietnamese governments worked together to cleanse the land of Agent Orange, but the recovery of the forests has been hard.Segment 3: Personal ConnectionsI wanted to talk about this topic because it’s a commonly overlooked event in history. This can be seen because wars that the U.S. didn’t win, such as the Vietnam war, despite its important impact on the United States, are often overlooked when history is taught to many Americans. In addition, the U.S. committed many war crimes or similar atrocities to other parts of the world, which this episode aimed to shine a light on. I hope you have learned something from this episode, be it history or chemistry. If this episode sparked an interest in you for chemical warfare during the Vietnam War, I highly recommend doing a bit of learning on other rainbow herbicides and napalm as well.Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. Sources:List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.https://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/245t/245tv/syn_of_245t_and_dioxin.htmhttps://www.aspeninstitute.org/programs/agent-orange-in-vietnam-program/what-is-agent-orange/#:~:text=Agent%20Orange%20was%20a%20herbicide,to%20have%20harmful%20impact%20today.https://www.warrelatedillness.va.gov/education/exposures/agent-orange.asphttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK236351/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent_Orangehttp://npic.orst.edu/factsheets/archive/2,4-DTech.htmlhttps://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/tfacts104.pdfMusic CreditsWarm Nights by @LakeyInspired Subscribe to our PodcastApple PodcastsSpotifyGoogle Podcasts Stitcher Connect with us on Social Media@theHVSPN